Sociology Plus
Differential Association Definition
Differential association is a sociological theory developed by Edwin H. Sutherland in 1934, which posits that criminal behaviour is a learned social phenomenon resulting from an individual’s contact with attitudes and definitions regarding law violation within their social environment. The theory suggests that an individual becomes delinquent or criminal when they are exposed to a greater number of definitions favourable to breaking the law than those unfavourable to it. This learning process occurs primarily within primary groups, where members are socialised into holding specific views about legality and deviance.
Core Tenets
The central argument of differential association is that criminality is not innate or purely psychological but is acquired through socialisation. Individuals learn criminal behaviour by internalising the definitions prevalent in their immediate associations. The theory focuses on the relative balance of these attitudes; an individual becomes criminal when the definitions favourable to violating the law outweigh those encouraging law-abiding behaviour. Sutherland argued that this process explains not only the act of crime but also the specific types of crimes an individual engages in, suggesting that people learn how to commit various offences, such as tax evasion or minor workplace infractions, through these differential interactions.
Theoretical Context and Influence
Differential association emerged as a response to earlier, multi-factorial approaches to explaining criminal causation, aiming to establish a more integrated, sociological explanation rather than focusing solely on individual psychopathology. It shifts the focus from inherent abnormality to the influence of general social processes and learning mechanisms. While critics have argued that the theory reduces individuals to being passive recipients of their environment without genuine choice, proponents emphasised that it provides a powerful framework for understanding how criminal identities are formed through social interaction.
Development and Critique
The theory was further developed and refined by scholars such as Donald R. Cressey, who collaborated with Sutherland, and others, expanding its application across various deviant phenomena. Although the theory is highly influential in deviance research, it has faced criticism regarding its scope; some argue that it does not adequately account for isolated acts of violence or crimes committed by individuals who are not habitual offenders. Nevertheless, the theory remains significant because it successfully located the cause of crime within social learning processes, emphasising that criminal behaviour is learned in the same manner as conventional social skills.