Crowd Behavior

Crowd Behavior Definition

Crowd behaviour refers to the dynamic and varied actions undertaken by groups of individuals when they assemble in common locations over a period of time, encompassing the processes of formation, development, and termination of these temporary collections. While historically studied under the monolithic concept of ‘the crowd’, contemporary sociological research favours the term ‘gathering’ to describe a temporary collection of at least two persons in a shared space and time, irrespective of their specific actions or motives. Understanding crowd behaviour requires examining the three phases of any gathering—assembling, dispersing, and the duration of the assembly itself—and analysing how individual and collective actions interact within these dynamic settings.

Conceptual Shift: From Crowd to Gathering

Early sociological attempts to study ‘the crowd’ were hampered by the assumption of homogeneity in actors and motives, which proved unhelpful for systematic empirical investigation. Consequently, modern scholarship has shifted focus from studying the monolithic entity of the crowd to analysing temporary gatherings. A gathering is defined as a space-time collection where individuals interact, and this process involves an assembling phase (bringing people together), a dispersing phase (leaving the location), and the actual state of assembly, which is a kaleidoscopic mix of individual and collective actions.

Empirical Observations on Participation

Extensive surveys of various public gatherings—including political events, religious rallies, and sporting celebrations—have established several key empirical facts regarding participation. First, individual attributes do not reliably predict whether an individual will participate. Second, participation is determined by factors such as social networks (solicitations from friends or acquaintances), the availability to assemble, and access to the location. Third, most individuals participate in gatherings with companions, remain together, and disperse with them, meaning most assemblies consist predominantly of small groups. This dynamic mix results in alternating and varied individual and collective actions throughout the duration of a gathering.

Theoretical Explanations of Collective Action

The study of crowd behaviour has led to several competing theoretical frameworks attempting to explain these phenomena:

Contagion and Deindividuation Theories

These theories posit that individuals within a group lose cognitive control, mindlessly imitating the actions of others, leading to mutually inclusive collective behaviour. However, empirical evidence fails to support claims of lost cognitive control or mutually inclusive behaviour; they do not adequately account for the dynamic alternation between individual and collective actions observed in real-world gatherings.

Predisposition (Convergence) Theories

These theories suggest that crowds form when individuals with similar innate or acquired predispositions (attitudes, grievances) converge at a location for shared reasons. Empirical testing of these claims, particularly in events like civil rights demonstrations, has yielded no support for the idea that such convergence necessarily leads to mutually inclusive behaviour.

Emergent Norm Theories

Adherents of this view argue that mutually inclusive behaviour is an illusion; instead, crowds are composed of diverse individuals whose interactions generate an emergent norm that constrains behaviour. While acknowledging interaction as a source of decisions, these theories struggle to explain collective actions that arise from shared repertoires or planned activities, such as civil disobedience.

Rational Choice Theories

These theories acknowledge individual diversity and the influence of interaction on decision-making regarding collective action. While placing individuals in control of their choices, they are criticised for failing to account for how alternative courses of action are initially formulated, their inability to incorporate errors or unanticipated consequences, and their failure to fully connect cognition to subsequent action.

Complexity and Control Systems Theories

These theories view crowd behaviour as variable and dynamic, assuming that individual actors are autonomous, heuristic, interdependent, and adaptive agents operating within a negative feedback, control system model. These models successfully account for the various ways collective action develops: some actions arise from independent generation of goals, others from interdependent actions within small groups, and still others result from voluntary compliance with external solicitations. This framework explains why observed collective actions are purposive but neither mutually inclusive nor continuous.