Sociology Plus
Positivist Theories of Deviance Definition
Sociologists define deviance as the violation of a norm that typically provokes societal responses such as punishment, scorn, or stigmatisation of the offender, encompassing acts, beliefs, and traits. Positivist theories of deviance are rooted in the application of natural science methodologies to social life, positing that normative violations can be explained by objective, causal laws, much like those governing the physical world. This approach contrasts with constructionist perspectives, which focus instead on the social construction, dynamics, and consequences of the norms themselves.
Core Assumptions of Positivism
The positivist methodology in the social sciences is based on three fundamental assumptions: objectivism, empiricism, and determinism. Objectivism suggests that phenomena, including deviance, possess a reality independent of social construction, implying that normative violations constitute an objectively real entity demanding explanation. Empiricism asserts that knowledge about these violations can be gained through quantitative research methods, such as surveys, stressing reliability and validity. Determinism posits that the material world, including the social world, operates according to cause-and-effect relationships, meaning that the central question in positivist research is determining “why” behaviour occurs.
Early Positivists
The earliest positivists of deviance and crime were social statisticians who sought causal laws in criminal behaviour. Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874) identified regularities in recorded criminal acts, suggesting that crime was subject to causal laws discoverable through scientific methods, thereby opening the possibility of sociological analysis. Later, the Positive School, founded by Italian physician Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909), sought to apply physical science methods to criminology. Advocates believed that law violations resulted from natural causes rather than free will, focusing particularly on biological factors, such as physical defects or ‘atavisms’, as causes of criminal behaviour—an approach often termed the “born criminals” theory. Although Lombroso’s initial focus was heavily biological, he later modified his views, attributing a decreasing role to biology and an increasing role to social factors.
Positivist Theories of Crime and Deviance
Positivist theories encompass a wide range of explanations for deviance, spanning genetic, biochemical, psychological, and sociological domains. These include:
* Social Disorganisation Theory: Developed by the Chicago School researchers, this theory posits that instability within neighbourhoods—caused by factors like low rents and social mobility—leads to increased rates of illegal and non-normative behaviour because residents lack effective monitoring and sanctioning mechanisms.
* Anomie Theory: Associated with Robert Merton (1968), this structural theory explains deviance as a disjuncture between culturally valued goals (like wealth) and the legitimate means available to achieve them. When access to these goals is limited for certain groups, individuals may turn to alternative, illegitimate means to pursue success.
* Learning Theory: Edwin Sutherland’s (1947) differential association theory argues that criminal norms are learned through interaction within intimate groups. Learning involves acquiring definitions favourable to the violation of law, suggesting that crime is acquired socially rather than inherited or inevitable.
* Social Control Theory: This perspective shifts focus from motivation to restraint, asserting that deviance results when an individual is not adequately controlled by society. The strength of an individual’s bond with society—through attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief in group norms—determines their likelihood of conforming behaviour.
* Self-Control Theory: Developed by Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi (1990), this theory suggests that a failure in the generalisation process leads to a deficit in self-control, making individuals more prone to engaging in risky behaviours, including crime.
Constructionist Modes
While positivism dominated early criminology, constructionist theories offer alternative frameworks. Labeling theory focuses on how societal reactions and the enforcement of rules shape conceptions of wrongdoing. A minor mode within this approach suggests that being formally labelled as a deviant can paradoxically solidify a deviant identity and entrench subsequent behaviour. Conflict theory examines inequality in power as the primary determinant of law and enforcement, arguing that social class structures cause differential rates of crime, contrasting with positivism’s focus on individual causation. Feminists also employ these frameworks to analyse how patriarchal institutions reinforce norms and contribute to crimes against women.
The sociological study of deviance is thus characterised by a duality: the positivist half seeks objective causes for deviant behaviour, while the constructionist half explores the social processes through which deviance is created and understood.